SECTION 1
CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE
Questions 1-8
Read the text below and answer Questions 1-8.
A
Civil disobedience is the active refusal to obey certain laws, demands or commands of a government. It involves peaceful protests against laws or government demands that are regarded as unjust. Practitioners of civil disobedience may be seeking to change the law that they are opposing, or they may simply be looking to obstruct the operation of the law or government policy. Alternatively, a person who employs civil disobedience may not actually object to the law they are breaking, but they consider it necessary to protest against what they regard as a greater injustice. Most activists who employ civil disobedience are choosing to disobey the law non-violently, rather than resorting to armed resistance or other forms of violent protest, which might include damage to property or harm to individuals. They are generally willing to accept the legal consequences of their actions, although there are exceptions to this. It is this acceptance of the legal consequences that has been influential in changing both laws and wider attitudes towards civil disobedience.
B
Historically, there are a number of civil disobedience movements of significance. Henry David Thoreau's 1849 essay Civil Disobedience, entitled 'Resistance to Civil Government', is a key text. In this well-known essay, Thoreau argues for a priority of individual conscience over government legislation. Before and during the American Civil War, citizens who helped runaway slaves were acting in breach of the law, but they were following the dictates of their consciences. Thoreau himself resisted the imposition of taxes that would be used to fund the US war against Mexico, and was briefly imprisoned for his refusal. Despite this, he was relatively privileged compared to those actively resisting slavery. He was not pursued vigorously by the state because of his actions. Some of his neighbors actually paid the taxes on his behalf, which led to his release, but he protested even against this intervention.
C
Mohandas (later 'Mahatma', or 'Great Soul') Gandhi was influenced by Thoreau and was one of the most important 20th-century proponents of civil disobedience. In South Africa, he led campaigns against restrictions on immigration, and later, on racial discrimination. Upon returning to India, he organized a long series of campaigns against British rule. For Gandhi, the notion of civil disobedience was strongly linked to his wider philosophy and religious beliefs. He advocated a policy of non-violence, believing that the use of violence against the British would simply replace one source of oppression with another. His view was that if he employed violence to achieve his aims, it would be harder to resist the desire for revenge once the British had been overcome. He therefore believed that if India was to be truly independent and genuinely peaceful, the means used to achieve those goals had to be consistent with his belief in non-violence. In some cases, however, Gandhi's civil disobedience campaigns were called off because they had led to violence. The British Viceroy, Lord Irwin, was aware that forcible suppression of the movement would lead to widespread violence, so the protests became a factor in the British decision to remove themselves from the governing of India, albeit after a long struggle.
D
In the United States, under the leadership of Martin Luther King, civil disobedience became a powerful part of the Civil Rights movement. In the face of continuing racial segregation, even after the Supreme Court ruled that separate schools for black and white children were not equal, activists adopted a series of tactics to resist the law. In 1955 in Montgomery, Alabama, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white person on a bus - a protest that led to a boycott of the bus company by supporters of the Civil Rights movement. The aim was to target the company's revenues. The boycott was a success, and the US Supreme Court eventually ruled that the local law requiring segregation on Montgomery buses was unconstitutional.
E
In the UK, the suffragette movement of the early 20th century campaigned to get the vote for women. Their tactics included disruption of daily life through civil disobedience, such as chaining themselves to railings, pouring chemicals into mailboxes to damage the mail, breaking windows and even arson. The mass civil disobedience of the suffragettes and the attempts to suppress their activities led to around 1,000 imprisonments. Many of them went on hunger strike in prison, which led to the authorities force-feeding them. Faced with continuing protests, bad publicity from the suffering of women when force-fed, and unwillingness to release the women, the government felt forced to pass the Prisoner's Temporary Discharge Act in 1913. This allowed the temporary discharge of prisoners who were so weakened by hunger striking that they were at risk of death, but meant that they could be re-imprisoned to serve out the rest of their sentence once they had recovered. This law became known as the 'Cat and Mouse Act' and was criticized as inhumane. Nonetheless, one of the important legacies of the suffragette movement was the lesson that the vote could be won, and the law changed, by direct action, rather than purely by constitutional means.
F
A number of environmentalist groups have employed methods of civil disobedience in opposition to nuclear weaponry and power stations. For instance, in 1982 a group of women began a peace camp outside the Greenham Common Royal Air Force base in Berkshire, England, protesting against the siting of 96 cruise missiles there. In 1983, during demonstrations which aimed to disrupt the transportation of the missiles into the base, more than 750 women were arrested for 'obstructing the highway'. A series of similar actions over the coming years resulted in more arrests, including one of 200 women on a single day in December 1983. The missiles were in fact installed on the base, but the campaigners continued to surround it until the weapons were removed and the airbase closed. The peace camp came to an end in 2000.
G
Today, civil disobedience continues to be a significant form of political activism, with examples ranging from mass protests against government corruption to individuals refusing to comply with laws they believe are unjust. Many middle-class individuals, who might not have been politically active previously, may engage in this form of protest, sometimes when conventional political means have proven unsuccessful. In contemporary society, the use of social media to report civil disobedience may mean there is greater awareness of these protests, making it more difficult for authorities to dismiss or suppress civil disobedience, or to control the narrative surrounding such events. Thus, while the tactics of civil disobedience have not changed radically since the early 20th century, their impact may be amplified by 21st century technology.
Questions 9-14
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the text?
In boxes 9-14 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
SECTION 2
WORKPLACE WELLNESS
Questions 15-27
Read the text below and complete the notes.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 15-27 on your answer sheet.
Creating a healthier workplace environment results in reduced absenteeism and staff turnover, increased employee engagement, and improved morale, which can all contribute to greater productivity. Research has shown that supporting your employees to be healthier and happier at work does not need to be expensive.
Healthy eating
Encourage healthier eating by replacing soda with filtered tap water. Make fruit accessible in common areas where employees gather. Consider installing a fridge to enable employees to store their healthy meals brought from home instead of buying fast food options.
Exercise
Consider creating safe storage areas for bikes to encourage employees to cycle to work. If your building has the space, install showers for employees who wish to exercise before work, at lunch, or on their way home from work.
Encourage participation in local and national physical activity campaigns. There are a number of free health campaigns run throughout the year, such as 'National Walking Month' or 'Cycle to Work Day'. Get onboard with these campaigns, which often have free resources to help get your employees involved.
Feedback
A simple and effective way to encourage employee involvement is to conduct health-related surveys to understand what is important to them and where they would like to see improvement. These don't need to be complicated – a simple 'suggestions box' can be very effective, as can employee focus groups.
New kitchen facilities and equipment
Whether you have a new kitchen or simply have new equipment, you have an opportunity to create the healthy-eating culture from the start. Here are some tips for those setting up a new facility:
- Make sure that all staff members who use the kitchen wear aprons for food preparation.
- Require all staff to wash their hands when using the notice board explaining how to wash hands properly.
- Have all food thoroughly washed, and all money handling containers cleaned.
- Do not overstock – maintain about a 2–3 day supply.
- Post emergency phone numbers and health department inspection information.
Maintenance of kitchens
Whether you have a professional kitchen or a simple office kitchen area, the following might be helpful:
- Post a weekly cleaning schedule that is maintained by the kitchen supervisor and accessible to all staff.
- Check temperature of appliances daily – refrigerator should be 40°F (4°C), freezer should be 0°F (-17°C).
- Keep Labels on cleaning products (detergent bottles) and keep them away from food.
- Keep cleaning supplies in their original containers.
- Keep food items in the storeroom or refrigerator with the date they were opened.
SECTION 3
THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTMAKING
Questions 28-35
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C, D or E.
Write the correct letter in boxes 28-35 on your answer sheet.
Printing is a process for reproducing images and text by applying color under pressure to paper or other materials. It encompasses a number of different techniques that have been practiced for hundreds of years. They include woodcuts, engravings, etchings, lithographs and screen-printing, all of which require specialist skills and equipment, and all of which have been used, and are still used, by artists to produce high-quality prints of their work.
In the early days of printing, woodcuts and copper plate engravings were the principal techniques. A copper-plate engraving was made by cutting the image into the metal. When the plate was inked, the ink remained in the sunken lines of the image and was transferred to paper when the plate and paper were squeezed together in a press, leaving an impression of the image. As the paper was pressed into the lines of the engraving, a ridge of paper was raised on the back of the print, and the ink stood proud of the paper. A print expert would look for these signs to identify a copper engraving. As the copper plate had to be engraved in reverse – in other words, the image had to be cut into the plate backwards compared to the way it would be printed out – the process had technical difficulties.
Nevertheless, copper engraving became more and more sophisticated over time. In Italy in the early 16th century, Marcantonio Raimondi produced prints of unprecedented quality from engravings, which he was using to reproduce paintings. He realized that since the copper plate could be printed many times, the art of the great painters could become available to people who could not otherwise have afforded to see or purchase the originals. However, the labor involved in copper engraving was considerable, and engravings were still expensive, especially ones that were printed using colored inks. By the 17th century, only rulers and the very rich could afford to commission original prints from copper-plate engravers, and less wealthy people had to be satisfied with maps and pictures in books.
Although the techniques of engraving were not in themselves scientifically sophisticated, they were used by scientists in communicating their ideas and discoveries. In the 18th century, biological illustrations usually started by drawing directly from the subject, and were valued according to their accuracy of representation. Their inclusion in scientific journals helped to promote the work of the featured scientists. In 1798, the Lombardy Academy of Science in Italy recommended that lithography should be used for scientific illustration. Unlike copper-plate engraving, stone lithography allows a wide range of tonal variations and an artist can draw directly onto the stone without the need for engraving. This innovation made print-making much faster; it meant that many more prints could be run off, and in time led to the emergence of mass-market magazines.
Major advances came in the early 19th century with the introduction of lithography, which was invented in 1798 by Alois Senefelder. Senefelder had been looking for a cheap way to publish theatrical works, and found that he could use wax to draw on a stone plate, which was then treated with chemicals, so that when ink was applied to the stone, it stuck only to the areas where the drawing had been done. This enabled him to transfer his designs to paper by pressing them on the stone. This became a popular technique with artists, because they could draw directly onto the stone instead of having to use a printer as an intermediary. Famous artists like Manet, Degas and Picasso enthusiastically embraced lithography, and many artists today still use stone lithography to create prints of their own designs and artwork. With the continued development of lithography, color reproduction techniques advanced.
By the early 20th century, photographic printing techniques had been refined to the point where it was possible to make excellent color reproductions of paintings. Print-making had declined as a medium for artists, although certain major artists continued to produce etchings and lithographs, using the form as a medium in its own right, rather than merely a way to reproduce an image. For example, the Spanish artist Goya created an entire sequence of prints, entitled 'Caprichos', which allowed him to express himself freely. Printmaking was an essential part of his output, and in total he produced some 270 prints. Developments in photography seemed to have made the artist-printmaker obsolete, but the growth of a mass consumer society, and with it the emergence of mass advertising in the early 20th century, meant that the skills of the printmaker were still in demand, especially in the form of screen-printing, which was a cheap way of making bold, striking posters.
Screen-printing has a history that goes back to the earliest forms of stencil-making in China around 1000 years ago. From China, the craft spread to Japan, where the stencil technique was applied to fabric. The Japanese used human hair to create a mesh that supported the design. By the early 20th century, fabric was being used instead of hair, and squeegees replaced brushes for pushing the ink through the mesh. Today, most screen-printing is carried out using a photo stencil made from a light-sensitive gelatin, which is exposed to the image in a process similar to that used in photography. Parts of the gelatin become hardened when exposed to light, while the areas that remain in shadow can be washed away, allowing the ink to penetrate the screen and print onto the surface placed below. Most screen-printing is done on a commercial basis to mass-produce a specified image, although many artists do screen-printing as part of their practice.
Contemporary artists use computer-aided printing of various kinds when they want to mass-produce their own work, or when they choose to work in that medium as part of their creative practice. Some artists continue to use traditional printing techniques such as linocuts, wood carving and lithography, delighting in the particularities of the chosen medium. And many contemporary artists combine old and new techniques or import images from one medium into another to create interesting effects.
Although its primary purpose is reproductive, making prints is also a creative process, and artists and illustrators continue to use all of the techniques described above to produce limited-edition prints of their work. These are signed and numbered by the artist, and are sold through galleries in editions of 15 to 50 copies of each image. These days, such prints are highly regarded by art critics and collectors. Prints are no longer viewed as inferior to other art forms such as paintings or drawings, and they are purchased by major galleries and private collectors.
Screen Printing
A screen print is made by pressing ink through a mesh, parts of which have been obscured by a stencil so that the ink only penetrates the open areas, creating an image on a surface placed beneath the mesh. The mesh, which is stretched tightly across a frame, is traditionally made of fabric, although metal or nylon may also be used. An artist starts the process by making a drawing or design, which is followed by the construction of a stencil to recreate the design. The stencil can be made in various ways, such as by cutting shapes from paper, or by painting parts of the screen with a liquid which dries and blocks the screen.
The technique of screen printing was first used in China. The Chinese used human hair to construct the mesh. A stencil was created, and ink forced through the mesh using a stiff brush. In the early 20th century, printers in the West began to use the technique. Modern stencils used in screen printing are typically made using photo-sensitive gelatins, which go hard when exposed to light. This allows very fine detail to be created.
Some artists prefer to create stencils with a geometric pattern, which can be repeated to create a design, while others may prefer to work with photographic images. Because the screen can be used many times, it is easy to create multicolored prints by printing one color at a time, using a different screen for each color.
While the process is part of what makes a screen print distinctive, artists also need to choose what surface to print on. Many artists choose newspaper, but other options include plastic, card or even knitwear.
Passages
SECTION 1
CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE
Questions 1-8
Read the text below and answer Questions 1-8.
A
Civil disobedience is the active refusal to obey certain laws, demands or commands of a government. It involves peaceful protests against laws or government demands that are regarded as unjust. Practitioners of civil disobedience may be seeking to change the law that they are opposing, or they may simply be looking to obstruct the operation of the law or government policy. Alternatively, a person who employs civil disobedience may not actually object to the law they are breaking, but they consider it necessary to protest against what they regard as a greater injustice. Most activists who employ civil disobedience are choosing to disobey the law non-violently, rather than resorting to armed resistance or other forms of violent protest, which might include damage to property or harm to individuals. They are generally willing to accept the legal consequences of their actions, although there are exceptions to this. It is this acceptance of the legal consequences that has been influential in changing both laws and wider attitudes towards civil disobedience.
B
Historically, there are a number of civil disobedience movements of significance. Henry David Thoreau's 1849 essay Civil Disobedience, entitled 'Resistance to Civil Government', is a key text. In this well-known essay, Thoreau argues for a priority of individual conscience over government legislation. Before and during the American Civil War, citizens who helped runaway slaves were acting in breach of the law, but they were following the dictates of their consciences. Thoreau himself resisted the imposition of taxes that would be used to fund the US war against Mexico, and was briefly imprisoned for his refusal. Despite this, he was relatively privileged compared to those actively resisting slavery. He was not pursued vigorously by the state because of his actions. Some of his neighbors actually paid the taxes on his behalf, which led to his release, but he protested even against this intervention.
C
Mohandas (later 'Mahatma', or 'Great Soul') Gandhi was influenced by Thoreau and was one of the most important 20th-century proponents of civil disobedience. In South Africa, he led campaigns against restrictions on immigration, and later, on racial discrimination. Upon returning to India, he organized a long series of campaigns against British rule. For Gandhi, the notion of civil disobedience was strongly linked to his wider philosophy and religious beliefs. He advocated a policy of non-violence, believing that the use of violence against the British would simply replace one source of oppression with another. His view was that if he employed violence to achieve his aims, it would be harder to resist the desire for revenge once the British had been overcome. He therefore believed that if India was to be truly independent and genuinely peaceful, the means used to achieve those goals had to be consistent with his belief in non-violence. In some cases, however, Gandhi's civil disobedience campaigns were called off because they had led to violence. The British Viceroy, Lord Irwin, was aware that forcible suppression of the movement would lead to widespread violence, so the protests became a factor in the British decision to remove themselves from the governing of India, albeit after a long struggle.
D
In the United States, under the leadership of Martin Luther King, civil disobedience became a powerful part of the Civil Rights movement. In the face of continuing racial segregation, even after the Supreme Court ruled that separate schools for black and white children were not equal, activists adopted a series of tactics to resist the law. In 1955 in Montgomery, Alabama, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white person on a bus - a protest that led to a boycott of the bus company by supporters of the Civil Rights movement. The aim was to target the company's revenues. The boycott was a success, and the US Supreme Court eventually ruled that the local law requiring segregation on Montgomery buses was unconstitutional.
E
In the UK, the suffragette movement of the early 20th century campaigned to get the vote for women. Their tactics included disruption of daily life through civil disobedience, such as chaining themselves to railings, pouring chemicals into mailboxes to damage the mail, breaking windows and even arson. The mass civil disobedience of the suffragettes and the attempts to suppress their activities led to around 1,000 imprisonments. Many of them went on hunger strike in prison, which led to the authorities force-feeding them. Faced with continuing protests, bad publicity from the suffering of women when force-fed, and unwillingness to release the women, the government felt forced to pass the Prisoner's Temporary Discharge Act in 1913. This allowed the temporary discharge of prisoners who were so weakened by hunger striking that they were at risk of death, but meant that they could be re-imprisoned to serve out the rest of their sentence once they had recovered. This law became known as the 'Cat and Mouse Act' and was criticized as inhumane. Nonetheless, one of the important legacies of the suffragette movement was the lesson that the vote could be won, and the law changed, by direct action, rather than purely by constitutional means.
F
A number of environmentalist groups have employed methods of civil disobedience in opposition to nuclear weaponry and power stations. For instance, in 1982 a group of women began a peace camp outside the Greenham Common Royal Air Force base in Berkshire, England, protesting against the siting of 96 cruise missiles there. In 1983, during demonstrations which aimed to disrupt the transportation of the missiles into the base, more than 750 women were arrested for 'obstructing the highway'. A series of similar actions over the coming years resulted in more arrests, including one of 200 women on a single day in December 1983. The missiles were in fact installed on the base, but the campaigners continued to surround it until the weapons were removed and the airbase closed. The peace camp came to an end in 2000.
G
Today, civil disobedience continues to be a significant form of political activism, with examples ranging from mass protests against government corruption to individuals refusing to comply with laws they believe are unjust. Many middle-class individuals, who might not have been politically active previously, may engage in this form of protest, sometimes when conventional political means have proven unsuccessful. In contemporary society, the use of social media to report civil disobedience may mean there is greater awareness of these protests, making it more difficult for authorities to dismiss or suppress civil disobedience, or to control the narrative surrounding such events. Thus, while the tactics of civil disobedience have not changed radically since the early 20th century, their impact may be amplified by 21st century technology.
Questions 9-14
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the text?
In boxes 9-14 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
SECTION 2
WORKPLACE WELLNESS
Questions 15-27
Read the text below and complete the notes.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 15-27 on your answer sheet.
Creating a healthier workplace environment results in reduced absenteeism and staff turnover, increased employee engagement, and improved morale, which can all contribute to greater productivity. Research has shown that supporting your employees to be healthier and happier at work does not need to be expensive.
Healthy eating
Encourage healthier eating by replacing soda with filtered tap water. Make fruit accessible in common areas where employees gather. Consider installing a fridge to enable employees to store their healthy meals brought from home instead of buying fast food options.
Exercise
Consider creating safe storage areas for bikes to encourage employees to cycle to work. If your building has the space, install showers for employees who wish to exercise before work, at lunch, or on their way home from work.
Encourage participation in local and national physical activity campaigns. There are a number of free health campaigns run throughout the year, such as 'National Walking Month' or 'Cycle to Work Day'. Get onboard with these campaigns, which often have free resources to help get your employees involved.
Feedback
A simple and effective way to encourage employee involvement is to conduct health-related surveys to understand what is important to them and where they would like to see improvement. These don't need to be complicated – a simple 'suggestions box' can be very effective, as can employee focus groups.
New kitchen facilities and equipment
Whether you have a new kitchen or simply have new equipment, you have an opportunity to create the healthy-eating culture from the start. Here are some tips for those setting up a new facility:
- Make sure that all staff members who use the kitchen wear aprons for food preparation.
- Require all staff to wash their hands when using the notice board explaining how to wash hands properly.
- Have all food thoroughly washed, and all money handling containers cleaned.
- Do not overstock – maintain about a 2–3 day supply.
- Post emergency phone numbers and health department inspection information.
Maintenance of kitchens
Whether you have a professional kitchen or a simple office kitchen area, the following might be helpful:
- Post a weekly cleaning schedule that is maintained by the kitchen supervisor and accessible to all staff.
- Check temperature of appliances daily – refrigerator should be 40°F (4°C), freezer should be 0°F (-17°C).
- Keep Labels on cleaning products (detergent bottles) and keep them away from food.
- Keep cleaning supplies in their original containers.
- Keep food items in the storeroom or refrigerator with the date they were opened.
SECTION 3
THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTMAKING
Questions 28-35
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C, D or E.
Write the correct letter in boxes 28-35 on your answer sheet.
Printing is a process for reproducing images and text by applying color under pressure to paper or other materials. It encompasses a number of different techniques that have been practiced for hundreds of years. They include woodcuts, engravings, etchings, lithographs and screen-printing, all of which require specialist skills and equipment, and all of which have been used, and are still used, by artists to produce high-quality prints of their work.
In the early days of printing, woodcuts and copper plate engravings were the principal techniques. A copper-plate engraving was made by cutting the image into the metal. When the plate was inked, the ink remained in the sunken lines of the image and was transferred to paper when the plate and paper were squeezed together in a press, leaving an impression of the image. As the paper was pressed into the lines of the engraving, a ridge of paper was raised on the back of the print, and the ink stood proud of the paper. A print expert would look for these signs to identify a copper engraving. As the copper plate had to be engraved in reverse – in other words, the image had to be cut into the plate backwards compared to the way it would be printed out – the process had technical difficulties.
Nevertheless, copper engraving became more and more sophisticated over time. In Italy in the early 16th century, Marcantonio Raimondi produced prints of unprecedented quality from engravings, which he was using to reproduce paintings. He realized that since the copper plate could be printed many times, the art of the great painters could become available to people who could not otherwise have afforded to see or purchase the originals. However, the labor involved in copper engraving was considerable, and engravings were still expensive, especially ones that were printed using colored inks. By the 17th century, only rulers and the very rich could afford to commission original prints from copper-plate engravers, and less wealthy people had to be satisfied with maps and pictures in books.
Although the techniques of engraving were not in themselves scientifically sophisticated, they were used by scientists in communicating their ideas and discoveries. In the 18th century, biological illustrations usually started by drawing directly from the subject, and were valued according to their accuracy of representation. Their inclusion in scientific journals helped to promote the work of the featured scientists. In 1798, the Lombardy Academy of Science in Italy recommended that lithography should be used for scientific illustration. Unlike copper-plate engraving, stone lithography allows a wide range of tonal variations and an artist can draw directly onto the stone without the need for engraving. This innovation made print-making much faster; it meant that many more prints could be run off, and in time led to the emergence of mass-market magazines.
Major advances came in the early 19th century with the introduction of lithography, which was invented in 1798 by Alois Senefelder. Senefelder had been looking for a cheap way to publish theatrical works, and found that he could use wax to draw on a stone plate, which was then treated with chemicals, so that when ink was applied to the stone, it stuck only to the areas where the drawing had been done. This enabled him to transfer his designs to paper by pressing them on the stone. This became a popular technique with artists, because they could draw directly onto the stone instead of having to use a printer as an intermediary. Famous artists like Manet, Degas and Picasso enthusiastically embraced lithography, and many artists today still use stone lithography to create prints of their own designs and artwork. With the continued development of lithography, color reproduction techniques advanced.
By the early 20th century, photographic printing techniques had been refined to the point where it was possible to make excellent color reproductions of paintings. Print-making had declined as a medium for artists, although certain major artists continued to produce etchings and lithographs, using the form as a medium in its own right, rather than merely a way to reproduce an image. For example, the Spanish artist Goya created an entire sequence of prints, entitled 'Caprichos', which allowed him to express himself freely. Printmaking was an essential part of his output, and in total he produced some 270 prints. Developments in photography seemed to have made the artist-printmaker obsolete, but the growth of a mass consumer society, and with it the emergence of mass advertising in the early 20th century, meant that the skills of the printmaker were still in demand, especially in the form of screen-printing, which was a cheap way of making bold, striking posters.
Screen-printing has a history that goes back to the earliest forms of stencil-making in China around 1000 years ago. From China, the craft spread to Japan, where the stencil technique was applied to fabric. The Japanese used human hair to create a mesh that supported the design. By the early 20th century, fabric was being used instead of hair, and squeegees replaced brushes for pushing the ink through the mesh. Today, most screen-printing is carried out using a photo stencil made from a light-sensitive gelatin, which is exposed to the image in a process similar to that used in photography. Parts of the gelatin become hardened when exposed to light, while the areas that remain in shadow can be washed away, allowing the ink to penetrate the screen and print onto the surface placed below. Most screen-printing is done on a commercial basis to mass-produce a specified image, although many artists do screen-printing as part of their practice.
Contemporary artists use computer-aided printing of various kinds when they want to mass-produce their own work, or when they choose to work in that medium as part of their creative practice. Some artists continue to use traditional printing techniques such as linocuts, wood carving and lithography, delighting in the particularities of the chosen medium. And many contemporary artists combine old and new techniques or import images from one medium into another to create interesting effects.
Although its primary purpose is reproductive, making prints is also a creative process, and artists and illustrators continue to use all of the techniques described above to produce limited-edition prints of their work. These are signed and numbered by the artist, and are sold through galleries in editions of 15 to 50 copies of each image. These days, such prints are highly regarded by art critics and collectors. Prints are no longer viewed as inferior to other art forms such as paintings or drawings, and they are purchased by major galleries and private collectors.
Screen Printing
A screen print is made by pressing ink through a mesh, parts of which have been obscured by a stencil so that the ink only penetrates the open areas, creating an image on a surface placed beneath the mesh. The mesh, which is stretched tightly across a frame, is traditionally made of fabric, although metal or nylon may also be used. An artist starts the process by making a drawing or design, which is followed by the construction of a stencil to recreate the design. The stencil can be made in various ways, such as by cutting shapes from paper, or by painting parts of the screen with a liquid which dries and blocks the screen.
The technique of screen printing was first used in China. The Chinese used human hair to construct the mesh. A stencil was created, and ink forced through the mesh using a stiff brush. In the early 20th century, printers in the West began to use the technique. Modern stencils used in screen printing are typically made using photo-sensitive gelatins, which go hard when exposed to light. This allows very fine detail to be created.
Some artists prefer to create stencils with a geometric pattern, which can be repeated to create a design, while others may prefer to work with photographic images. Because the screen can be used many times, it is easy to create multicolored prints by printing one color at a time, using a different screen for each color.
While the process is part of what makes a screen print distinctive, artists also need to choose what surface to print on. Many artists choose newspaper, but other options include plastic, card or even knitwear.
Questions
SECTION 1
Questions 1–8
The passage has seven paragraphs, A-G.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A-G, in boxes 1-8 on your answer sheet.
1 a description of the sort of people who are involved in civil disobedience today
2 a reference to the impact of civil disobedience on those who practise it
3 a reference to the need to distinguish civil disobedience from other forms of protest
4 examples of different causes that have used civil disobedience
5 an explanation of why a ruler cooperated with a civil disobedience movement
6 a reference to a change in the law that resulted from civil disobedience
7 a reference to the part played by the media in civil disobedience campaigns
8 a reference to civil disobedience that took place in different parts of the world
Questions 9–14
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the text?
In boxes 9–14 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
9 According to the writer, taking direct action has been more successful than using constitutional methods to change the law.
10 Participants in civil disobedience are free to choose whether or not to accept the legal consequences.
11 Gandhi's aim was to make the British decide to give India independence.
12 Many of the Americans who were against segregation on buses did not approve of the methods used to oppose it.
13 Women managed to gain the vote in the UK without using civil disobedience.
14 The government does not allow the media to report on civil disobedience.
SECTION 2
Questions 15–27
Complete the notes below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 15–27 on your answer sheet.
WORKPLACE WELLNESS
Benefits to employers:
- Reduced 15
- Better staff retention
- Greater productivity
Recommended actions:
Healthy eating
- Replace 16 with healthier alternatives
- Provide 17 in communal areas
- Install 18 for people's food
Exercise
- Create safe storage space for 19
- Install 20 for staff who want to do exercise
Feedback
- Conduct health-related 21
New kitchen facilities and equipment:
- Staff should wear 22
- Wash hands when using notice 23
- Wash all 24 handling containers
Maintenance of kitchen:
- Check temperature of 25
- 26 should be checked and updated
- Food should be dated and stored in 27
SECTION 3
Questions 28–35
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C, D, or E.
Write the correct letter in boxes 28–35 on your answer sheet.
28 According to the text, regardless of what decade a copper engraving may have been created in,
29 In the 16th century, the price of prints tended to be relatively high when
30 As far as prints are concerned, what does the writer say was affected by the recommendation of the Lombardy Academy of Science?
31 According to the text, the introduction of lithography meant that
32 What does the writer say about Goya?
33 People who create prints today
34 In what way does the writer suggest that the status of prints has changed?
35 What would be the most suitable title for this text?
Questions 36–40
Complete the summary below.
Choose NO MORE THAN ONE WORD from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 36–40 on your answer sheet.
Screen Printing
A screen print is created when ink is pushed through the mesh of a screen, parts of which have been blocked using a stencil. The screen is made of 36 which is finely woven and stretched on a frame. The artist works from a design, following 37 precisely, and uses a squeegee to press the ink through the mesh.
The process was first employed by the Chinese, who used human hair to create the mesh. Today, the mesh is commercially produced. Modern stencils are frequently created using photo-sensitive gelatins but the stencil may also be cut by hand. Some artists like to produce stencils with a 38 pattern, but it is possible to produce all sorts of images. The screen can be used repeatedly, so it is easy to print in several different colors or to produce a large number of copies.
As well as thinking about the aesthetic impact of the printing technique, artists also need to decide what surface to use. Many like to use 39 but it is also common to use card, plastic, or even 40 .