Cambridge 16 General Reading - Test1

SECTION 1: Questions 1-14

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-14, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.

Clubs and Societies at University

University isn't just about studying for a degree. It's also about developing yourself as a person, exploring new interests, and having fun! The student union runs over 50 clubs and societies that you can join. Here, we'll tell you about a few of them.

ACADEMIC CLUBS

Chemistry Society
The Chemistry Society is perfect for anyone studying Chemistry or related subjects. We organize talks from visiting professors, trips to industrial sites and scientific conferences, as well as social events like pizza nights and pub quizzes. Meetings are held every Wednesday at 6 pm in the Science Building, room S301. Membership is $15 per year. For more information, contact Lucy at chemistry.society@uni.edu

Law Society
The Law Society arranges career events, mooting competitions, and social gatherings for students interested in law. We have strong links with local law firms who provide mentoring and internship opportunities. Meetings take place on Mondays at 7 pm in the Law Building, room L205. Membership costs $20 per year, which includes a professional networking event each semester. Contact Mark at law.society@uni.edu for details.

SPORTS CLUBS

Rowing Club
The Rowing Club welcomes members of all abilities, from complete beginners to experienced rowers. Training sessions take place on Tuesday and Thursday mornings from 6:30 am and Saturday afternoons from 2 pm at the university boathouse on River Road. We compete in regional and national competitions throughout the year. Membership is $50 per semester, which includes all equipment and coaching. Contact rowing.club@uni.edu for more information.

Basketball Club
Join our Basketball Club for regular training, competitive leagues, and social events. We have men's, women's and mixed teams catering to all skill levels. Training sessions are on Mondays and Wednesdays from 8-10 pm in the Sports Hall. Membership is $30 per semester. Email basketball.club@uni.edu if you're interested.

CREATIVE CLUBS

Drama Society
The Drama Society produces three major shows each academic year, with opportunities to act, direct, design sets, or work backstage. We welcome students from all disciplines who have an interest in theatre. Workshops are held every Sunday from 2-5 pm in the Arts Centre. Membership is $25 per year. Productions are cast by audition, which are open to all members. For information about upcoming auditions, email drama.society@uni.edu

Photography Club
The Photography Club organizes workshops on different photography techniques, group shoots around the city, and exhibitions of members' work. We cater to all levels from beginner to advanced and all types of photography from portrait to landscape. Meetings are on Thursdays at 6 pm in the Arts Building, room A102. Membership costs $15 per year. You'll need your own camera. Contact photography.club@uni.edu

CULTURAL & INTERNATIONAL CLUBS

International Students Association
The International Students Association brings together students from around the world, providing support and organizing cultural events. We run an orientation program for new international students, regular social events, and an annual International Food Festival. Meetings are held on the first Friday of each month at 6 pm in the Student Union building. Membership is free. All students are welcome, not just international students. For more details, contact international.association@uni.edu

Chinese Cultural Society
The Chinese Cultural Society celebrates Chinese culture through various events including Chinese New Year celebrations, language exchange sessions, and traditional cultural workshops. We welcome members from all backgrounds who are interested in Chinese culture. Meetings are on Tuesdays at 7 pm in the Global Centre, room G12. Membership is $10 per year. Email chinese.society@uni.edu for information about upcoming events.

VOLUNTEERING & COMMUNITY

Environmental Action Group
The Environmental Action Group runs campaigns on environmental issues, organizes campus clean-ups, and promotes sustainability at the university. Current projects include a plastic-free campus campaign and a community garden. Meetings are every Monday at 5 pm in the Student Union, room SU3. Membership is free. Contact environment.group@uni.edu to get involved.

Charity Fundraising Society
The Charity Fundraising Society organizes events throughout the year to raise money for various local and international charities. Events include sponsored runs, bake sales, and an annual charity ball. We meet on Wednesdays at 6 pm in the Student Union, room SU5. Membership is free. Email charity.society@uni.edu for information about our next fundraising event.

HOW TO JOIN

Most clubs and societies will be represented at the Freshers' Fair during the first week of the semester. This is a great opportunity to talk to current members, find out more about what they do, and sign up. Alternatively, you can visit the Student Union website (www.uni-su.org/clubs) for a full list of clubs and societies and contact details for each one. Many clubs and societies allow you to attend one or two meetings before deciding whether to join, so don't be afraid to try something new!

START YOUR OWN CLUB

If you can't find a club or society that matches your interests, why not start your own? You'll need at least 8 students who are interested in joining, a clear plan for what activities the club will organize, and a committee of at least a President, Secretary and Treasurer. The Student Union will provide funding of up to $500 per year for approved clubs and societies. For more information on how to start a new club, visit the Student Activities Office on the first floor of the Student Union building, or email activities@uni.edu.

SECTION 2: Questions 15-27

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 15-27, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.

An Introduction to Hydroponics

Hydroponics is the practice of growing plants without soil. Instead, plants are grown in a solution of water and nutrients, or in a medium such as gravel, sand, or rockwool to which the nutrient solution is added. The word 'hydroponics' comes from the Greek words 'hydro' meaning water and 'ponos' meaning labor.

While the technology may seem modern, the practice is ancient. The hanging gardens of Babylon, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, are believed to have used hydroponic principles. The Aztecs developed a system of floating gardens called 'chinampas', where plants grew on the surface of a lake. Chinese farmers have practiced various forms of hydroponic growing for centuries.

Modern hydroponics began in the mid-19th century when researchers discovered that plants absorb essential mineral nutrients as inorganic ions in water. In the 1930s, Dr. William Gericke of the University of California at Berkeley began promoting the practical application of hydroponics for growing crops. During World War II, hydroponics was used to produce fresh vegetables for troops stationed on non-arable islands in the Pacific. In the 1960s and 1970s, hydroponic techniques were further refined, leading to broader commercial applications.

Today, hydroponics is used both commercially and by hobbyists. Commercial growers use it to produce vegetables, fruits, herbs, and even flowers. Most commercial hydroponic operations are large greenhouse facilities, though smaller operations exist in urban environments, often utilizing vertical farming techniques to maximize space.

There are several different types of hydroponic systems. The simplest is the Wick System, where a wick draws nutrient solution from a reservoir to the growing medium. The Ebb and Flow (or Flood and Drain) system temporarily floods the growing medium with nutrient solution and then drains it back into the reservoir. The Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) continuously flows a thin film of nutrient solution over the roots. In the Water Culture system, plant roots are suspended directly into the nutrient solution. Aeroponics suspends plants in air and mists the roots with nutrient solution.

Regardless of the specific technique, all hydroponic systems share certain advantages over traditional soil-based growing. One key benefit is water conservation. Hydroponic systems use up to 90% less water than traditional soil-based agriculture because the water in the system is recirculated rather than draining away or evaporating. This makes hydroponics particularly valuable in areas with limited water resources.

Another advantage is space efficiency. Because plant roots don't need to spread out in search of nutrients, hydroponic plants can be grown much closer together than soil-grown plants. Furthermore, because they don't rely on seasons or climate, hydroponic systems can operate year-round in any location. This ability to grow food locally regardless of climate has significant potential for reducing the environmental impact of transporting food long distances.

Hydroponics also allows for precise control over nutrient delivery. In traditional agriculture, farmers apply fertilizers to soil, but they have limited control over how much of those nutrients actually reach the plants. In hydroponics, nutrients are delivered directly to the plant roots in precise amounts, reducing waste and optimizing plant growth.

Moreover, hydroponic growing eliminates the need for pesticides and herbicides. Without soil, there are fewer pests and diseases, and no weeds to compete with crops for nutrients. This results in healthier plants and eliminates the potential environmental impacts of agricultural chemicals.

Despite these advantages, hydroponics also presents challenges. Setting up a hydroponic system requires an initial investment in equipment. Commercial systems in particular can be expensive to establish, though costs have been decreasing as technology improves and becomes more widespread. Additionally, hydroponic systems rely on electricity for pumps and timers, making them vulnerable to power outages. They also require technical knowledge to maintain proper nutrient levels, pH, and other factors to ensure healthy plant growth.

For those interested in starting with hydroponics, there are many resources available. Books, websites, and online forums provide information on building and maintaining different types of systems. Pre-made kits are available for purchase, ranging from simple countertop herb gardens to larger systems capable of producing a significant amount of food. Many gardening and hydroponics supply stores offer classes and workshops for beginners.

Looking to the future, hydroponics is likely to play an increasingly important role in global food production. As the world's population continues to grow and arable land becomes scarcer, the ability to grow food efficiently in any location will become even more valuable. Innovations in technology are making hydroponic systems more efficient and easier to use. For example, automated systems can now monitor and adjust nutrient levels, pH, and lighting without human intervention.

Hydroponics is also enabling new approaches to agriculture, such as vertical farming in urban environments. By growing crops in stacked layers in buildings, vertical farms can produce large amounts of food in small footprints, bringing production closer to consumers. Some vertical farms are being integrated into residential buildings, supermarkets, and restaurants, providing ultra-fresh produce with minimal transportation.

In conclusion, while hydroponics may not completely replace traditional agriculture, it offers a promising complement to existing methods. By addressing issues of water scarcity, land use, and environmental impact, hydroponics has the potential to contribute significantly to sustainable food production in the 21st century and beyond.

SECTION 3: Questions 28-40

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 28-40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.

The Psychology of Queuing

Standing in line is an almost universal human experience. From bank tellers to supermarket checkouts, from amusement park rides to airport security, we spend a considerable portion of our lives waiting in lines. But what seems like a simple process – people arriving at a service point and waiting their turn – is in fact a complex psychological and sociological phenomenon that has been studied extensively by researchers.

The science of queue psychology began in earnest in the 1950s with the work of queueing theory pioneer David Maister. His influential paper, "The Psychology of Waiting Lines," identified several principles that still guide how businesses manage queues today. Maister observed that our perception of time spent waiting often matters more than the actual time itself. In other words, a wait that feels short is better than one that actually is short but feels long. This insight transformed how businesses approach queue management.

Perhaps the most widely recognized psychological principle related to queuing is that occupied time feels shorter than unoccupied time. When we have something to distract us, we perceive waiting time as passing more quickly. This is why many businesses now provide diversions for people in queues – from televisions in waiting rooms to mirrors near elevators (people enjoy looking at themselves and time passes more quickly when they do). Disney theme parks, masters of queue management, design their waiting areas as part of the attraction experience, with themed environments, videos about the upcoming ride, and interactive elements to keep visitors engaged.

Another key principle is that anxiety makes waits seem longer. When we're uncertain about how long we'll wait or whether we're in the right line, our anxiety increases and so does our perception of time. This explains why many businesses now use numbered tickets or digital queuing systems that tell customers exactly where they stand in line and approximately how long they'll wait. Some restaurants provide time estimates when adding patrons to a waiting list, while others deliberately overestimate wait times so customers are pleasantly surprised when they're seated "early."

People generally prefer fairness in queuing situations, which is why "first come, first served" is the dominant model in most cultures. When this norm is violated – when someone cuts in line, for example – it can provoke strong negative emotions. Studies have shown that perceived injustice in queues can lead to aggressiveness and even violence in extreme cases. However, there are cultural variations in queuing behavior. In some cultures, maintaining personal space while queuing is important, while in others, physical proximity is more acceptable. In some societies, orderly queuing is strictly observed, while in others, a more competitive approach to gaining service is the norm.

Interestingly, researchers have found that in many situations, a single queue feeding multiple service points (like a bank with one line feeding multiple tellers) is not only more efficient but is perceived as fairer and less stressful by customers. This is because it eliminates the "wrong line" phenomenon – the anxiety that comes from choosing between multiple lines and then watching another line move faster than yours. The single serpentine line ensures that everyone is served strictly in the order they arrived.

The perception of queue length also influences customer behavior. Studies show that people are more likely to balk (decide not to join) or renege (leave after joining) if a queue appears too long. This is why some businesses deliberately hide the full extent of their queues, for instance by having them wind around corners. Conversely, visible queues can sometimes be advantageous – a restaurant with people waiting outside may signal popularity and quality to passersby.

The pain of waiting is also affected by our expectations. When a service takes longer than expected, dissatisfaction increases dramatically. On the other hand, when service is faster than expected, customer satisfaction soars. This asymmetry has led to the practice of "under-promising and over-delivering" when it comes to wait times. Additionally, waits of uncertain duration are more stressful than known, finite waits. This explains why progress bars on computers and countdown timers at pedestrian crossings have become common features of modern life.

The final moments of a wait carry disproportionate weight in how we remember the entire experience. This is an example of what psychologists call the "peak-end rule," where our memory of an experience is shaped primarily by its most intense point (the peak) and how it ended. A long wait that ends well – perhaps with exceptional service or a small gesture like a sincere apology for the delay – may be remembered more positively than a shorter wait with a negative ending.

Technology is changing how we queue in many situations. Virtual queuing systems allow people to register for service and then do other things until their turn approaches. Mobile apps let customers join a restaurant waitlist before arriving or schedule appointments instead of waiting. These technologies address many of the psychological pain points of traditional queuing – they occupy time that would otherwise be spent waiting, reduce anxiety by providing information, and create a sense of progressing toward the goal.

However, these innovations also create new challenges. Digital divides mean that not everyone has equal access to virtual queuing technology. And while many younger customers prefer digital queues, some older customers may find traditional queuing more familiar and less stressful. Businesses must therefore be thoughtful about how they implement new queuing systems to ensure they're serving all their customers effectively.

The COVID-19 pandemic brought about further changes to queuing behavior. Social distancing requirements led to new queue management techniques, with spaced markers on floors and limited numbers of people allowed in stores simultaneously. These practices may have lasting effects on how we think about personal space in queues, even as the immediate health concerns recede.

What the psychology of queuing ultimately teaches us is that waiting is not just about time – it's about emotion, perception, fairness, information, and expectations. By understanding these dimensions, organizations can design waiting experiences that minimize frustration and even, in some cases, become positive parts of the overall customer journey. And as individuals, understanding the psychology behind our reactions to waiting might just make our next queue a little more bearable.